創(chuàng)新資源【外文翻譯】

1、<p>　　本科畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯</p><p>　　外文題目： THE SOURCES OF INNOVATION </p><p>　　出 處： University of California </p><p>　

2、　作 者： Eric von Hippel </p><p>　　1overview</p><p>　　It has long been assumed that product innovations are typically developed by product manufacturers. Be

3、cause this assumption deals with the basic matter of who the innovator is, it has inevitably had a major impact on innovation-related research, on firms' management of research and development, and on government inno

4、vation policy .However, it now appears that this basic assumption is often wrong.</p><p>　　In this book I begin by presenting a series of studies showing that the sources of innovation vary greatly.In some f

5、ields, innovation users develop most innovations. In others, suppliers of innovation-related components and materials are the typical sources of innovation.In still other fields, conventional wisdom holds and product man

6、ufacturers are indeed the typical innovators. Next, I explore why this variation in the functional sources of innovation occurs and how it might be predicted.Finall</p><p>　　2 variations in the Functional S

7、ource of Innovation</p><p>　　We have seen that users sometimes innovate. But do they always? Or does the functional source of innovation vary in some manner between users, manufacturers, suppliers, and other

8、s? To be able to answer these questions, we must have data on the sources of innovation characteristic of at least a few more types of innovation. Therefore, my students and I undertook the six brief studies I will descr

9、ibe in this chapter.Each of the six studies examines a different type of innovation. The first four I </p><p>　　Each study uses identical methods, so that their results are commensurable, and each is tightly

10、 focused on a single issue: What are the sources of innovation? These studies find that the functional source of innovation differs strikingly across the several types of product and process innovation Ihave explored.<

11、;/p><p>　　Manufacturers as Innovators: The Tractor Shovel</p><p>　　The tractor shovel is a very useful machine often used in the construction industry. Initial conversations with experts in constru

12、ction led us to suspect that users would in fact be innovators in tractor shovels. Everyone had a story to tell about a construction firm that, facing an unusual challenge and a tight deadline, performed an overnight mod

13、ification to some item of construction</p><p>　　equipment that solved the problem and saved the day. In fact, however, tractor shovel manufacturers turned out to be the dominant source of commerdally success

14、ful tractor shovel innovations.</p><p>　　The tractor shovel can be visualized as a four-wheeled, rubber-tired machine with a large, movable scoop mounted at the front end. It is normally used for excavation

15、and other construction tasks as well as for the general handling of bulk materials, ranging from coal to chemicals to soybeans. Householders who live in states with severe winters may have a clear visual image of tractor

16、 shovels: They are typically the machines that dig out roads after ordinary trucks have been halted by deep snow.</p><p>　　Tractor shovels are built in many sizes. Today, one can find large tractor shovels w

17、ith massive, 20 cu-yd scoops working in open-pit mines loading ore into trucks; one can also find small tractor shovels working in warehouses shifting various materials from place to place 1 cu yd at a time.Approximately

18、 41,000 tractor shovels of all sizes were manufactured in the United States in 1980, with an aggregate value of $1.5 billion dollars.</p><p>　　The Sample</p><p>　　The basic tractor shovel was de

19、veloped in 1939. The sample consists of that basic innovation plus all significant improvements to the tractor shovel commercialized prior to 1970.4 The major improvements category in Table 3-3 consists of innovations th

20、at are installed in virtually all tractor shovels and that are of value to essentially all users. For example, articulation, an innovation that hinges the tractor shovel in the middle and greatly improves steering and tr

21、action, is valuable to essent</p><p>　　Finding :The Sources of Tractor Shovel Innovation</p><p>　　As can clearly be seen in Table 3-4, almost all of the innovations studied were developed by tra

22、ctor shovel manufacturers. In two instances these innovating manufacturers were what is known in the trade as allied manufacturers or allied vendors. These are firms that make a specialty of manufacturing attachments for

23、 tractor shovels and similar machines. Sometimes they are simply equipment dealers who run a small manufacturing operation on the side.(Tractor shovel manufacturers will often cooperat</p><p>　　Only one inno

24、vation studied was completely developed by a user: the attachment coupler system, which was developed by a farmer for use on his farm. But users did some innovation work related to some of the other special attachments s

25、tudied (see the appendix).For example, before steel-shod tires were developed by a manufacturer (they are used to protect tractor shovel tires from cuts)，some tractor shovel users were protecting the tires of their machi

26、nes by wrapping them with heavy steel chains.Ma</p><p>　　All engineering plastics are produced in low volume but with a relatively high selling price when judged against such bulk plastics as polyethylene. I

27、n 1976engineering plastics counted for about 2% by but accounted for about 6% of the total value volume of all plastics produced of all plastics produced.s</p><p>　　The Sample</p><p>　　The sampl

28、e of engineering plastics innovations consists of all commercially successful engineering thermoplastic monomers* introduced to the market after 1955 that achieved sales of at least 10 million lbs annually by 1975.(This

29、definition of commercial success was suggested by plastics manufacturer interviewees.) The five engineering thermoplastics innovations that met these sample selection criteria are identified in Table 3-5.</p><

30、p>　　Findings: The Sources of Engineering Thermoplastics Innovation</p><p>　　As can be seen in Table 3-6, "four and one-half" of the five engineering</p><p>　　plastics in the sample

31、were developed by plastics manufacturers. Thus, this very small sample shows a strong manufacturer-as-innovator pattern.</p><p>　　The innovation coded as 50% user developed and 50% manufacturer developed was

32、 polycarbonate resin (Lexan)，which was developed by General Electric in 1960. GE is both a major producer and a major user of polycarbonate. In the period immediately following commercialization when production capacity

33、was low relative to that of today, GE personnel estimate that as much as 50% of GE polycarbonate production was consumed internally. Currently, GE consumes only a small percentage of annual polycarbonate</p><p

34、>　　Happily, cases such as GE, where a single firm holds more than one functional role with respect to an innovation, are very rare in our samples. Whendual or multiple roles are held by the same innovating firm or ind

35、ividual,severe coding problems emerge. Often, one cannot determine which role the innovator was "really" motivated by during the development work.</p><p>　　Manufacturers as Innovators: Plastics Add

36、itives</p><p>　　Plastics additives are used to modify the properties of a basic polymer in desired ways. An enormous number of additives exist, and they are generally categorized according to the function th

37、ey perform. Thus, there are coloring agents, flame retardants, fungicides, filling materials, reinforcing materials,and so on. Each of these categories contains a number of materials of varying properties to serve the sp

38、ecified function.</p><p>　　I decided to examine the sources of innovation in two categories of plastics additives: plasticizers and ultraviolet (UV) stabilizers. These two additive types address markets of v

39、ery different size. (In 1983 more than 600,000 metric tons of plasticizers of all types were sold.b In that same year, approximately 2300 metric tons of UV stabilizers of all types were sold.' I do not have data on d

40、ollar volumes in these two categories: Ultraviolet stabilizer prices are typically somewhat higher than </p><p>　　Plasticizers are materials that are incorporated into plastics to improve</p><p>

41、;　　properties such as workability and flexibility. Without plasticizers, plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) would be hard and brittle. Ultraviolet stabilizers are added to plastics to protect them from the effect

42、of ultraviolet light such as that present in sunlight. Without such protection, susceptible plastics would quickly discolor, become brittle, or show other undesirable changes.</p><p>　　The Sample</p>

43、<p>　　The sample of plasticizes and ultraviolet stabilizer innovations included all commercialized compounds that met four criteria. First, the additive was appropriate for use with at least one of the four largest

44、plastics in commercial use: polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polypropylene. Second, the additive must have been first commercialized after the World War II-a requirement added under the assumption that

45、data on more recent innovations would be of high quality. Third, the ad</p><p>　　industry. Fourth, the additive was included only if it represented an improvement over previously commercialized additives on

46、a property of importance to users other than cost, for example, decreased toxicity or increased ease of use.</p><p>　　The sample of plasticizers and ultraviolet stabilizers selected as meeting these criteria

47、 is identified in Table 3-7.</p><p>　　Findings: The Sources of Plastics Additives Innovation</p><p>　　As can be seen in Table 3-8, more than 90% of the plastics additives innovadons studied were

48、 developed by firms that manufactured them. (Interestingly, two UV stabilizer innovations coded as manufacturer developed showed a pattern I had not found before: A single manufacturer did not develop the innovation on i

49、ts own. Instead, an association of manufacturers funded the required R&D work at a private research firm.)</p><p>　　Suppliers as Innovators</p><p>　　Up to this point in the research on the f

50、unctional sources of innovation, my students and I had conducted six studies in total and had only observed innovation by users and/or manufacturers. But experience gained in these studies was leading me to speculate as

51、to the cause of the striking variations in the functional source of innovation that we had been observing.</p><p>　　I will discuss this matter in the next chapter. For present purposes, however, let me just

52、say my speculation was that innovation appeared to be"caused" by potential innovators' relative preinnovation expectations of</p><p>　　innovation-related benefit. And, therefore, it seemed to m

53、e that innovation in any number of functional loci should exist, given only the proper level and distribution of benefit expectations.</p><p>　　So, Pieter VanderWerf (Ph.D. candidate) and I set out deliberat

54、ely to find</p><p>　　innovation in a third functional locus, suppliers. (Suppliers are firms or individuals whose relationship to an innovation is that of supplying components or materials required in the in

55、novation's manufacture or use.)It seemed reasonable in a rough way that suppliers might develop an innovation that they did not expect to use or sell if that innovation would result in a large increase in demand for

56、something they did want to sell. (Thus, gas utilities might develop novel gas appliances and give </p><p><b>　　創(chuàng)新資源</b></p><p>　　Eric von Hippel</p><p><b>　　一 概述&l

57、t;/b></p><p>　　產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新一直被產(chǎn)品制造者假定為象征性的發(fā)展。因為假定的創(chuàng)新者的基礎(chǔ)原因是它不可避免在創(chuàng)新相關(guān)研究和企業(yè)管理的研究和發(fā)展，政府創(chuàng)新政策有一個主要的影響。然而，現(xiàn)在面臨的是最基礎(chǔ)的假設(shè)通常是錯的。</p><p>　　在這本書里我以一系列創(chuàng)新資源的廣泛研究的變化為開頭。在一些領(lǐng)域，創(chuàng)新使用者推動了大部分的創(chuàng)新。另外，創(chuàng)新相關(guān)元件和材料的提供者是創(chuàng)新的典型資

58、源。還有另外一些領(lǐng)域，傳統(tǒng)智慧掌握者和產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)者事實上是典型的創(chuàng)新者。接著，我探索了為什么這些創(chuàng)新資源出現(xiàn)不斷變化以及它怎么樣被預(yù)測到。最后，我提出并且測試了一個創(chuàng)新制造者假設(shè)的一些含義，即創(chuàng)新過程分布在使用者，制造者，供給者，和其他。</p><p>　　1、創(chuàng)新官能資源的變化</p><p>　　我們已經(jīng)看到使用者有時候會創(chuàng)新。但是為什么他們會這樣做？或者說是不是創(chuàng)新官能資源的變化是在

59、使用者，制造者，供給者，和其他人呢？為了能回答這些問題，我們必須有一些有象征性的創(chuàng)新特征的數(shù)據(jù)。因此，我的學(xué)生和我從事了六個主要的研究，在下面我將闡述。</p><p>　　六個中的每一個都驗證了一個不同的創(chuàng)新形式。首先我將回顧并思考創(chuàng)新種類，然后選擇符合我技術(shù)知識和那些畢業(yè)生參與項目的領(lǐng)域研究。每一個研究用恒定的方式，那么他們的結(jié)論就會有公度，且每一個都能緊緊貼著一個主題：什么是創(chuàng)新資源？</p>

60、<p>　　2、制造者創(chuàng)新：牽引機鏟</p><p>　　牽引機鏟是在建筑工業(yè)中非常有用的機器。最開始專家之間的談話是懷疑使用者即是牽引機鏟的創(chuàng)造者。每一個都有一個故事在建筑企業(yè)里，面對一個不尋常的挑戰(zhàn)和一個最后期限，不得不進(jìn)行通宵修改建筑項目的設(shè)備去解決問題。事實上，然后，牽引機鏟能被具體為一個四輪，用橡皮綁著，前端還有一個巨大，可動的鏟子的機器。這是通常用于挖掘和其他建筑任務(wù)像裝修巨大的施工材料。

61、美國的房地產(chǎn)商在嚴(yán)重的衰退期有一個清晰可見的牽引機鏟：他們是典型的在卡車被積雪堵在路上時挖開道路的機器。</p><p>　　牽引機鏟有不同的大小。今天，我們都發(fā)現(xiàn)巨大的牽引機鏟大概有20立方工作在露天的煤礦。我們也能發(fā)現(xiàn)小的牽引機鏟在倉庫里面移動各種各樣的原料。1980年在美國將近41000牽引機鏟被制造，總計15億美元。</p><p><b>　　范例</b>&

62、lt;/p><p>　　基礎(chǔ)的牽引機鏟是在1939年發(fā)展的。這個樣本由基礎(chǔ)的創(chuàng)新加上所有重要的改良。主要的改良種類在表3.3，包括牽引機鏟安裝創(chuàng)新，這本質(zhì)上來說是所有使用者的價值。例如，在牽引機中間鏈條的改良極大提高了機制控制和牽引力，并且如今已經(jīng)是所有牽引機鏟的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。相對的，特別零件的創(chuàng)新僅僅是特別需要的生產(chǎn)任務(wù)才顯現(xiàn)價值。因此，長機械手臂被主要用于裝卸比較高的卡車或者用于測井的任務(wù)。當(dāng)然，許多特殊目的零部件的出現(xiàn)

63、，使?fàn)恳龣C從柏油路走上被雪封堵的路。</p><p>　　發(fā)現(xiàn)：牽引機鏟創(chuàng)新的資源</p><p>　　在圖3.4里我們可以清楚的看到，幾乎所有創(chuàng)新研究，都是被制造者發(fā)展起來的。在這兩個例子里面，這些創(chuàng)新制造者在制造聯(lián)盟或者賣方聯(lián)盟里都是很有名氣的。這些企業(yè)使他們的牽引機在相似機器上附加上了牽引機鏟。有時，他們只是簡單的機器設(shè)備商人。</p><p>　　只有一個創(chuàng)

64、新研究被一個使用者完全發(fā)展：像這個附加的車鉤技術(shù)，就是被一個農(nóng)民在他的農(nóng)場里使用發(fā)展而來的。但是使用者有些時候會有一些其他方面相關(guān)的創(chuàng)新研究。例如，之前鋼胎被一個制造者發(fā)展而來，是因為牽引機的使用者為了保護(hù)他們的輪胎而在他們的外胎上套上鋼鏈引發(fā)的。制造者的創(chuàng)新：機器熱塑性，機器塑料都是有機化學(xué)的成果。且，大部分是在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)后。機器塑料象征著塑料能夠在機器上得到應(yīng)用。更早的機器塑料的來臨，是由金屬和玻璃制成?，F(xiàn)在，我們都造出更好更便

65、宜的塑料。當(dāng)人們認(rèn)定這個塑料為聚乙烯的時候，所有工程塑料是生產(chǎn)很少，但是卻有很好的銷路。</p><p><b>　　樣本</b></p><p>　　工程塑料創(chuàng)新包括所有成攻商業(yè)工程熱塑性單體的引入市場，并在1955年后，每年取得至少1000萬鎊收入。這五個工程學(xué)熱塑性單體的創(chuàng)新選擇標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與圖3.5里相一致。</p><p>　　發(fā)現(xiàn)：工程熱塑

66、性資源的創(chuàng)新</p><p>　　當(dāng)我們看到圖3.6，五個工程塑料樣本中有“四個和一半”是由塑料制造者開發(fā)。因此，這些非常小的樣本顯示了一個非常明顯的制造者創(chuàng)新的畫面。</p><p>　　創(chuàng)新被操縱成50%使用者和50%制造者是1960年的GE公司的聚碳酸酯。GE即是聚碳酸酯的一個主要使用者也是最大的生產(chǎn)者。在那個時期的商業(yè)化與本產(chǎn)品容量并沒有像今天那樣緊密聯(lián)系，GE個人估計有50%的生

67、產(chǎn)是給自己使用。</p><p>　　令人高興的是，像GE這樣的企業(yè)充當(dāng)了不只一個有影響的角色，還渴望創(chuàng)新，在我們的樣本里是非常少見的。多樣的角色被一個創(chuàng)新企業(yè)或者個人所掌握，有一個問題出現(xiàn)。通常，不能決定哪個角色在發(fā)展中是真真動機明確的。</p><p>　　3、制造者創(chuàng)新：塑料添加物</p><p>　　塑料添加物通常被用于改變一個聚合物的屬性。一個巨大的添加物

68、的數(shù)字存在，并且根據(jù)它們的表現(xiàn)有非常多的種類。所以有著重與色彩，抗菌，填充，強化的材料。每一種都包含很多各種材料的屬性以達(dá)到特殊的官能。</p><p>　　我決定去檢測兩種塑料添加物的創(chuàng)新：塑化劑和紫外線穩(wěn)定劑。這兩個添加物在市場的份額差別很大。</p><p>　　塑化劑是一種添加進(jìn)去使可加工性和彈性增加的材料。沒有塑化劑，聚乙烯塑料將會很硬也很脆。紫外線穩(wěn)定劑是防止太陽中的紫外線影響

69、。沒有這種材料，敏感的塑料在陽光下會很快變色，變脆，或者其他不想要的改變。</p><p><b>　　樣本</b></p><p>　　可塑性和紫外線穩(wěn)定性包括所有商業(yè)化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的混合物。首先，這個添加物是適用于至少一種擁有很大市場份額的塑料。第二，這個添加物必須在二戰(zhàn)后機器設(shè)備里被使用，因為越近代的創(chuàng)新越能顯現(xiàn)高的質(zhì)量，第三，這個添加物必須是商業(yè)化成功的，這就是說已經(jīng)

70、在公開市場上出售，并被認(rèn)為在添加物這一塊是成功的高新產(chǎn)品工業(yè)。第四，添加物要與先前的商業(yè)化的添加物在對于重要性方面有提高，而不是成本上面，如，減少毒性或者增加舒適性。</p><p>　　這個塑化劑和紫外線穩(wěn)定劑樣本被選來作為與圖3.7一致的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。</p><p>　　發(fā)現(xiàn)：塑料添加物創(chuàng)新資源</p><p>　　像圖3.8所顯示，超過90%的塑料添加物創(chuàng)新研究是由

71、生產(chǎn)的企業(yè)開發(fā)而來的。有趣的是，兩個UV穩(wěn)定劑是由制造者開發(fā)，這是我過去所沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)的：一個單個生產(chǎn)者不能開發(fā)創(chuàng)新資源，相反，一系列的生產(chǎn)者提供資金在一個私人研究企業(yè)。</p><p><b>　　4、供給者創(chuàng)新</b></p><p>　　對于在創(chuàng)新資源研究這點，我的學(xué)生和我已經(jīng)展開了六個研究，只發(fā)現(xiàn)使用者和制造者的創(chuàng)新。但是在這些研究中獲得的研究使我深思已經(jīng)被我們發(fā)

72、現(xiàn)，醒目的創(chuàng)新資源變化。我將在下章討論這點，讓我思考創(chuàng)新好像是由潛在的創(chuàng)新者產(chǎn)生的。而且，似乎對于我來說，創(chuàng)新在任何官能部位都存在。</p><p>　　所以，Pieter VanderWerf (Ph.D. candidate)和我規(guī)定在第三個官能部位找到創(chuàng)新，即供給者。供給者是與創(chuàng)新制造和使用有關(guān)的創(chuàng)新元件的企業(yè)或者個體。這似乎是有道理的，在一個并不平坦的路上，需要供給者開發(fā)創(chuàng)新資源以達(dá)到他們希望高需求的的目