外文翻譯---供給與需求的市場(chǎng)力量

1、<p><b>　　附錄A</b></p><p>　　A.1 THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND</p><p>　　When a cold snap hits Florida，the price of orange juice rises in supermarkets throughout the countr

2、y．When the weather turns warm in New England every summer，the price of hotel rooms in the Caribbean plummets．When a war breaks out in the Middle East，the price of gasoline in the United States rises，and the price of a us

3、ed Cadillac falls．What do these events have in common? They all show the workings of supply and demand．</p><p>　　Supply and demand are the two words that economists use most often—and for good reason．Supply

4、and demand are the forces that make market economies work．They determine the quantity of each good produced and the price at which it is sold．If you want to know how any event or policy will affect the economy，you must t

5、hink first about how it will affect supply and demand．This chapter introduces the theory of supply and demand．It considers how buyers and sellers behave and how they interact with one an</p><p>　　A.1.1 MARKE

6、TS AND COMPETITION</p><p>　　The terms supply and demand refer to the behavior of people as they interact with one another in markets．A market is a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service．

7、The buyers as a group determine the demand for the product，and the sellers as a group determine the supply of the product．Before discussing how buyers and sellers behave，let's first consider more fully what we mean b

8、y a “market” and the various types of markets we observe in the economy．</p><p>　　A.1.1.1 COMPETITIVE MARKETS</p><p>　　Markets take many forms．Sometimes markets are highly organized，such as the

9、markets for many agricultural commodities．In these markets，buyers and sellers meet at a specific time and place，where an auctioneer helps set prices and arrange sales． </p><p>　　More often，mark

10、ets are less organized．For example，consider the market for ice cream in a particular town．Buyers of ice cream do not meet together at any one time．The sellers of ice cream are in different locations and offer somewhat di

11、fferent products．There is no auctioneer calling out the price of ice cream．Each seller posts a price for an ice-cream cone，and each buyer decides how much ice cream to buy at each store．</p><p>　　Even though

12、 it is not organized，the group of ice-cream buyers and ice-cream sellers forms a market．Each buyer knows that there are several sellers from which to choose，and each seller is aware that his product is similar to that of

13、fered by other sellers．The price of ice cream and the quantity of ice cream sold are not determined by any single buyer or seller．Rather，price and quantity are determined by all buyers and sellers as they interact in the

14、 marketplace．</p><p>　　The market for ice cream，like most markets in the economy，is highly competitive．A competitive market is a market in which there are many buyers and many sellers so that each has a negl

15、igible impact on the market price．Each seller of ice cream has limited control over the price because other sellers are offering similar products．A seller has little reason to charge less than the going price，and if he o

16、r she charges more，buyers will make their purchases elsewhere．Similarly，no single buyer of ice c</p><p>　　A.1.1.2 COMPETITION：PERFECT AND OTHERWISE</p><p>　　We assume in this chapter that market

17、s are perfectly competitive．Perfectly competitive markets are defined by two primary characteristics：(1) the goods being offered for sale are all the same，and (2) the buyers and sellers are so numerous that no single buy

18、er or seller can influence the market price．Because buyers and sellers in perfectly competitive markets must accept the price the market determines,they are said to be price takers．</p><p>　　There are some m

19、arkets in which the assumption of perfect competition applies perfectly．In the wheat market，for example，there are thousands of farmers who sell wheat and millions of consumers who use wheat and wheat products．Because no

20、single buyer or seller can influence the price of wheat，each takes the price as given．</p><p>　　Not all goods and services，however，are sold in perfectly competitive markets．Some markets have only one seller，

21、and this seller sets the price．Such a seller is called a monopoly．Your local cable television company，for instance，may be a monopoly．Residents of your town probably have only one cable company from</p><p>　　

22、which to buy this service．</p><p>　　Some markets fall between the extremes of perfect competition and monopoly．One such market，called an oligopoly，has a few sellers that do not always compete aggressively．Ai

23、rline routes are an example．If a route between two cities is serviced by only two or three carriers，the carriers may avoid rigorous competition to keep prices high．Another type of market is monopolistically competitive；

24、it contains many sellers，each offering a slightly different product．Because the products are not exactly the </p><p>　　Despite the diversity of market types we find in the world，we begin by studying perfect

25、competition．Perfectly competitive markets are the easiest to analyze．Moreover，because some degree of competition is present in most markets，many of the lessons that we learn by studying supply and demand under perfect co

26、mpetition apply in more complicated markets as well．</p><p>　　A.1.2 DEMAND</p><p>　　We begin our study of markets by examining the behavior of buyers．Here we consider what determines the quantit

27、y demanded of any good，which is the amount of the good that buyers are willing and able to purchase．To focus our thinking，let's keep in mind a particular good—ice cream．</p><p>　　A.1.2.1 WHAT DETERMINES

28、THE QUANTITY AN INDIVIDUAL DEMANDS</p><p>　　Consider your own demand for ice cream．How do you decide how much ice cream to buy each month，and what factors affect your decision? Here are some of the answers y

29、ou might give．</p><p>　　Price：If the price of ice cream rose to $20 per scoop，you would buy less ice cream．You might buy frozen yogurt instead．If the price of ice cream fell to $0．20 per scoop，you would buy

30、more．Because the quantity demanded falls as the price rises and rises as the price falls，we say that the quantity demanded is negatively related to the price．This relationship between price and quantity demanded is true

31、for most goods in the economy and，in fact，is so pervasive that economists call it the law of dema</p><p>　　Income：What would happen to your demand for ice cream if you lost your job one summer? Most likely，i

32、t would fall．A lower income means that you have less to spend in total，so you would have to spend less on some—and probably most— goods．If the demand for a good falls when income falls，the good is called a normal good．&l

33、t;/p><p>　　Not all goods are normal goods．If the demand for a good rises when income falls，the good is called an inferior good．An example of an inferior good might be bus rides．As your income falls，you are less

34、 likely to buy a car or take a cab，and more likely to ride the bus．</p><p>　　Prices of Related Goods Suppose：that the price of frozen yogurt falls．The law of demand says that you will buy more frozen yogurt．

35、At the same time，you will probably buy less ice cream．Because ice cream and frozen yogurt are both cold，sweet，creamy desserts，they satisfy similar desires．When a fall in the price of one good reduces the demand for anoth

36、er good，the two goods are called substitutes．Substitutes are often pairs of goods that are used in place of each other，such as hot dogs and hamburgers</p><p>　　Now suppose that the price of hot fudge falls．A

37、ccording to the law of demand，you will buy more hot fudge．Yet，in this case，you will buy more ice cream as well，because ice cream and hot fudge are often used together．When a fall in the price of one good raises the deman

38、d for another good，the two goods are called complements．Complements are often pairs of goods that are used together，such as gasoline and automobiles，computers and software，and skis and ski lift tickets．</p><p&

39、gt;　　Tastes： The most obvious determinant of your demand is your tastes．If you like ice cream，you buy more of it．Economists normally do not try to explain people's tastes because tastes are based on historical and ps

40、ychological forces that are beyond the realm of economics．Economists do，however，examine what happens when tastes change．</p><p>　　Expectations： Your expectations about the future may affect your demand for a

41、 good or service today．For example，if you expect to earn a higher income next month，you may be more willing to spend some of your current savings buying ice cream．As another example，if you expect the price of ice cream t

42、o fall tomorrow，you may be less willing to buy an ice-cream cone at today's price．</p><p>　　A.1.2.2 THE DEMAND SCHEDULE AND THE DEMAND CURVE</p><p>　　We have seen that many variables determi

43、ne the quantity of ice cream a person demands．Imagine that we hold all these variables constant except one—the price．Let's consider how the price affects the quantity of ice cream demanded．Table A1 shows how many ice

44、-cream cones Catherine buys each month at different prices of ice cream．If ice cream is free，Catherine eats 12 cones．At $0．50 per cone，Catherine buys 10 cones．As the price rises further，she buys fewer and fewer cones．Whe

45、n the price reaches $3．0</p><p>　　TABLEA1 CATHERINE'S DEMAND</p><p><b>　　附錄B</b></p><p>　　B.1 供給與需求的市場(chǎng)力量</p><p>　　當(dāng)寒流襲擊佛羅里達(dá)時(shí)，全國(guó)超市的桔子汁價(jià)格都上升了。每年夏天當(dāng)新英格蘭地區(qū)天

46、氣變暖時(shí)，加勒比地區(qū)飯店房間的價(jià)格呈直線下降。當(dāng)中東爆發(fā)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)時(shí)，美國(guó)的汽油價(jià)格上升，而二手凱迪拉克轎車(chē)價(jià)格下降。這些事件的共同之處是什么呢？它們都表現(xiàn)出供給與需求的作用。</p><p>　　供給與需求是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家最常用的兩個(gè)詞——而且有充分的理由。供給與需求是使市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)運(yùn)行的力量。它們決定了每種物品的產(chǎn)量以及出售的價(jià)格。如果你想知道，任何一種事件或政策將如何影響經(jīng)濟(jì)，你就應(yīng)該先考慮它將如何影響供給和需求。<

47、/p><p>　　本章介紹供給與需求理論。它考慮買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者的行為，以及他們相互之間的影響。本章要說(shuō)明市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)中供給與需求如何決定價(jià)格，以及價(jià)格又如何配置經(jīng)濟(jì)的稀缺資源。</p><p>　　B.1.1市場(chǎng)與競(jìng)爭(zhēng)</p><p>　　供給與需求這兩個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)是指人們?cè)谑袌?chǎng)上相互交易時(shí)的行為。市場(chǎng)是某種物品或勞務(wù)的一群買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者。買(mǎi)者作為一個(gè)群體決定了一種物品的需求，而賣(mài)者作為

48、一個(gè)群體決定了一種物品的供給。在討論買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者的行為之前，我們首先要更充分地思考我們所說(shuō)的“市場(chǎng)”是指什么，以及我們?cè)诮?jīng)濟(jì)中所觀察到的不同的市場(chǎng)類(lèi)型。</p><p>　　B.1.1.1競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)</p><p>　　市場(chǎng)采取了多種形式。有時(shí)市場(chǎng)組織健全，例如，許多農(nóng)產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)。在這些市場(chǎng)上，買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者在特定的地點(diǎn)與時(shí)間相聚，市場(chǎng)上還有拍賣(mài)者幫助確定價(jià)格并安排銷(xiāo)售。更經(jīng)常的情況是，市場(chǎng)并沒(méi)有什

49、么組織。例如，考慮一下某個(gè)鎮(zhèn)上的冰激凌市場(chǎng)。冰激凌的買(mǎi)者并沒(méi)有在任何一個(gè)時(shí)間相聚在一起。冰激凌的賣(mài)者在不同地方并提供略有差別的產(chǎn)品。這種市場(chǎng)上沒(méi)有報(bào)出冰激凌價(jià) 在每個(gè)店買(mǎi)多少冰激凌。盡管這個(gè)市場(chǎng)沒(méi)有人組織，但冰激凌買(mǎi)者集團(tuán)和冰激凌賣(mài)者集團(tuán)形成一個(gè)市場(chǎng)。每個(gè)買(mǎi)者都知道有一些賣(mài)者可供選擇，而且每個(gè)賣(mài)者都認(rèn)識(shí)到，他的產(chǎn)品與其他賣(mài)者提供的產(chǎn)品是相似的。冰激凌的價(jià)格和銷(xiāo)售量并不是由任何一個(gè)買(mǎi)者或賣(mài)者決定的。確切地說(shuō)，冰激凌的價(jià)格和銷(xiāo)售量是由所有買(mǎi)

50、者和賣(mài)者在市場(chǎng)上的相互交易所決定的。</p><p>　　冰激凌市場(chǎng)也和經(jīng)濟(jì)中大多數(shù)市場(chǎng)一樣是高度競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)是有許多買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者，以至于每一個(gè)人對(duì)市場(chǎng)價(jià)格的影響都微乎其微的市場(chǎng)。每一個(gè)冰激凌賣(mài)者對(duì)價(jià)格的控制是有限的，因?yàn)槠渌u(mài)者也提供類(lèi)似的產(chǎn)品；賣(mài)者沒(méi)有什么原因收取低于現(xiàn)行價(jià)格的價(jià)格，而且，如果他收取較高價(jià)格的話，買(mǎi)者就將到其他地方購(gòu)買(mǎi)。同樣，沒(méi)有一個(gè)冰激凌買(mǎi)者能影響冰激凌的價(jià)格，因?yàn)槊總€(gè)買(mǎi)者購(gòu)買(mǎi)量都很少。&

51、lt;/p><p>　　在本章中我們要研究競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)上買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者如何相互影響。我們要說(shuō)明，供給與需求的力量如何決定一種物品的銷(xiāo)售量及其價(jià)格。</p><p>　　B.1.1.2競(jìng)爭(zhēng)：完全及其他</p><p>　　在本章中我們假設(shè)，市場(chǎng)是完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的?？梢愿鶕?jù)兩個(gè)基本特征來(lái)定義完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)：（1）所提供銷(xiāo)售的物品是完全相同的，以及（2）買(mǎi)者和賣(mài)者如此之多，以至于沒(méi)有一個(gè)買(mǎi)者

52、或賣(mài)者可以影響市場(chǎng)價(jià)格。由于完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)上的買(mǎi)者與賣(mài)者必須接受市場(chǎng)決定的價(jià)格，所以，他們被稱(chēng)為價(jià)格接受者。</p><p>　　有一些市場(chǎng)完全適用于完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的假設(shè)。例如，在小麥?zhǔn)袌?chǎng)上，有成千上萬(wàn)出售小麥的農(nóng)民和千百萬(wàn)使用小麥和小麥產(chǎn)品的消費(fèi)者。由于沒(méi)有一個(gè)買(mǎi)者或賣(mài)者能影響小麥價(jià)格，所以，每個(gè)人都把價(jià)格作為既定的。但是，許多物品與勞務(wù)的市場(chǎng)并不是完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的。一些市場(chǎng)只有一個(gè)賣(mài)者，而且這個(gè)賣(mài)者決定價(jià)格。這個(gè)賣(mài)者被稱(chēng)為

53、壟斷。例如，你們本地的有線電視公司可能就是一種壟斷。你們鎮(zhèn)上的居民也許只能從這一家有線電視公司購(gòu)買(mǎi)有線電視服務(wù)。一些市場(chǎng)只有幾個(gè)賣(mài)者，而且這些賣(mài)者并不總是主動(dòng)地進(jìn)行競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。這種市場(chǎng)被稱(chēng)為寡頭。例如，一些航線就是寡頭市場(chǎng)。如果兩個(gè)城市之間的航線只由兩家或二家公司提供服務(wù)，那么，這些公司就傾向于努力避免激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，以維持高價(jià)格。</p><p>　　一些市場(chǎng)有許多提供略有差別產(chǎn)品的賣(mài)者。由于產(chǎn)品并不是完全相同的，每個(gè)買(mǎi)者

54、都有某種決定自己產(chǎn)品價(jià)格的能力。這種市場(chǎng)被稱(chēng)為壟斷。一個(gè)例子是軟件行業(yè)。許多文字處理程序都在相互爭(zhēng)奪使用者，但每一種程序都與其他每一種程序不同，并且有自己的價(jià)格。</p><p>　　盡管我們?cè)谑澜缟峡吹降氖袌?chǎng)類(lèi)型是多種多樣的，但我們從研究完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)開(kāi)始。完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)是最容易分析的。而且，由于大多數(shù)市場(chǎng)上都有某種程度的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，所以，我們從研究完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)下供給與需求中所得到的 許多結(jié)論也適用于更復(fù)雜的市場(chǎng)。</p&

55、gt;<p><b>　　B.1.2需求</b></p><p>　　我們對(duì)市場(chǎng)的研究從考察買(mǎi)者的行為開(kāi)始。在這里我們考慮什么因素決定任何一種物品的需求量，需求量是買(mǎi)者愿意而且能夠購(gòu)買(mǎi)的物品量。為了集中思考，我們牢記一種物品——冰激凌。 </p><p>　　B.1.2.1個(gè)人需求的決定因素</p><p>　　考慮一下你自己的冰

56、激凌需求。你如何決定每個(gè)月買(mǎi)多少冰激凌，以及哪些因素影響你的決策呢？這里是一些你可以給出的回答。</p><p>　　價(jià)格：如果每勺冰激凌的價(jià)格上升了20美分，你將會(huì)少買(mǎi)冰激凌。你會(huì)購(gòu)買(mǎi)冷凍酸奶。如果每勺冰激凌的價(jià)格下降20美分，你會(huì)多買(mǎi)一些。由于需求量隨著價(jià)格上升而減少，隨著價(jià)格下降而增加，我們說(shuō)，需求量與價(jià)格負(fù)相關(guān)。價(jià)格與需求量之間的這種關(guān)系對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)中大部分物品都是正確的，而且，實(shí)際上這種關(guān)系如此普遍，以至經(jīng)濟(jì)

57、學(xué)家稱(chēng)之為需求規(guī)律：在其他條件相同時(shí)，一種物品價(jià)格上升，該物品需求量減少。</p><p>　　收入：如果某個(gè)夏天你失去了工作，你對(duì)冰激凌的需求會(huì)發(fā)生什么變化呢？很可能的情況是，需求要減少。收入較低意味著人的總支出減少，因此你不得不在某些物品——而且也許是大多數(shù)物品上——少支出一些。如果當(dāng)收入減少時(shí)，一種物品的需求減少，這種物品就被稱(chēng)為正常物品。</p><p>　　并不是所有物品都是正常

58、物品。如果當(dāng)收入減少時(shí)，一種物品的需求增加，這種物品就被稱(chēng)為低檔物品。低檔物品的一個(gè)例子是搭乘公共汽車(chē)。隨著你收入減少，你不大可能買(mǎi)汽車(chē)或乘出租車(chē)，而是更可能坐公共汽車(chē)。</p><p>　　相關(guān)物品的價(jià)格：假定冷凍酸奶的價(jià)格下降。需求規(guī)律表明你將多買(mǎi)冷凍酸奶。同時(shí)，你也許將少買(mǎi)冰激凌。因?yàn)楸ち韬屠鋬鏊崮潭际抢涠鸬哪逃吞鹗常鼈儩M(mǎn)足相似的欲望。當(dāng)一種物品價(jià)格下降減少了另一種物品的需求時(shí)，這兩種物品被稱(chēng)為替代品

59、。其他成對(duì)的替代品包括熱狗與漢堡包，毛衣與長(zhǎng)袖衫，以及電影票和錄像帶租金。</p><p>　　現(xiàn)在假設(shè)新鮮軟糖價(jià)格下降。根據(jù)需求規(guī)律，你將買(mǎi)更多的新鮮軟糖。但在這種情況下，你將買(mǎi)更多冰激凌，因?yàn)楸ち韬托迈r軟糖通常是一起吃的。當(dāng)一種物品價(jià)格下降增加了另一種物品的需求時(shí)，這兩種物品被稱(chēng)為互補(bǔ)品、其他成對(duì)的互補(bǔ)品包括汽油與汽車(chē)，電腦和軟件，以及雪橇和空中纜車(chē)票。</p><p>　　嗜好：決

60、定你需求的最明顯因素是你的嗜好。如果你喜歡冰激凌，你會(huì)買(mǎi)得多一些。經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家通常并不想解釋人們的嗜好，因?yàn)槭群没诔搅私?jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)范圍的歷史與心理因素。但是，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家要考察當(dāng)嗜好變動(dòng)時(shí)會(huì)出現(xiàn)什么變化。</p><p>　　預(yù)期：你對(duì)未來(lái)的預(yù)期也會(huì)影響你現(xiàn)在對(duì)物品與勞務(wù)的需求。例如，如果你預(yù)期下個(gè)月會(huì)賺到更多收入，你可能愿意用你現(xiàn)在的一些儲(chǔ)蓄來(lái)買(mǎi)冰激凌。再舉一個(gè)例子，如果你預(yù)期明天冰激凌的價(jià)格會(huì)下降，你就會(huì)不太愿意以今天

61、的價(jià)格去買(mǎi)冰激凌。</p><p>　　B.1.2.2需求表與需求曲線</p><p>　　我們已經(jīng)知道，有許多變量決定一個(gè)人對(duì)冰激凌的需求量。設(shè)想有一個(gè)時(shí)候除了價(jià)格之外所有這些變量都不變。現(xiàn)在讓我們來(lái)考慮價(jià)格如何影響需求量。</p><p>　　表B1表示在不同的冰激凌價(jià)格時(shí)，凱瑟琳每個(gè)月買(mǎi)多少個(gè)冰激凌蛋卷。如果冰激凌是免費(fèi)的，凱瑟琳吃12個(gè)冰激凌。在每個(gè)價(jià)格為0