簡介：JOURNALOFASIANELECTRICVEHICLES,VOLUME16,NUMBER1,JUNE20181781LAWANDPOLICYONTHEDEVELOPMENTANDPROMOTIONOFTHENEWENERGYVEHICLENEVMARKETINCHINADENNISNIKOLAUSBLATTKOGUANLAWSCHOOL,SHANGHAIJIAOTONGUNIVERSITY,HINACKSJTUEDUCNABSTRACTCHINA’SCOMMITMENTTOWARDSBECOMINGMOREINNOVATIVEANDENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLY,HASLEDTOTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFAMYRIADOFPOLICIESTOFULFILLFUTUREDEVELOPMENTPLANSWHICHHASSUBSEQUENTLYALLOWEDTHENEWENERGYVEHICLENEVMARKETTOTHRIVETHENEVMARKETHASBENEFITTEDFROMPOLICIESWHICHINCENTIVIZEANDPRIORITIZEINDUSTRIESINTHEFIELDOFINNOVATIONANDENVIRONMENTALTECHNOLOGY,INADDITIONTOPOLICIESPROVIDINGGENEROUSSUBSIDIESSPECIFICALLYTOWARDSTHEMANUFACTURINGANDSALESOFNEVSASCHINA’SNEVMARKETCONTINUESTOGROWATARAPIDPACE,THISPAPERWILLANALYZETHESIGNIFICANCEPLAYEDBYPOLICIESIMPLEMENTEDATVARIOUSGOVERNMENTLEVELS,TOWARDSFACILITATINGTHEDEVELOPMENTANDPROMOTIONKEYWORDSCHINA,POLICIES,DEVELOPMENT,PROMOTION,NEWENERGYVEHICLE1INTRODUCTIONCHINAISCURRENTLYTHEWORLD’SLARGESTELECTRICVEHICLEMARKET,ANDHAVINGSETASALESTARGETOF5MILLIONNEWENERGYVEHICLESNEVSBY2020,HASLEDTOTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFPOLICIESATVARIOUSGOVERNMENTLEVELS,TOHELPFACILITATEFURTHERADVANCEMENTSTOWARDSTHEDEVELOPMENTANDPROMOTIONOFTHENEVMARKETTHENEVMARKETPLAYSANINTEGRALROLEINCHINA’SFUTUREDEVELOPMENT,ASTHE13TH5YEARPLAN20162020HASEMPHASIZEDTHEIMPORTANCETOWARDSINNOVATIONANDTRANSITIONINGINTOAGREENECONOMYASTHETARGETSPROVIDEDINCHINA’S5YEARPLANSAREN’TPOLICIESTHEMSELVES,THEYREQUIREPOLICIESTOHELPFACILITATEACHIEVINGSUCHTARGETSCHINA’SCOMMITMENTTOWARDSPOSITIONINGTHEMSELVESASGLOBALPOWERHOUSEINTHEFIELDSOFENVIRONMENTALDEVELOPMENTANDINNOVATION,HASRESULTEDINTHENATIONSHIFTINGTOWARDSECOFRIENDLYANDINNOVATIVEINDUSTRIESTOHELPACHIEVEFUTURETARGETSZHENGETAL,2012THUS,ALLOWINGTHENEVMARKETTOTHRIVECHINA’SNEVMARKETHASHADAPOSITIVEIMPACTTOWARDSHELPINGACHIEVESUCHTARGETS,ASTHEMARKETHASFACILITATEDSUCHAREASASREDUCINGURBANAIRPOLLUTIONANDCARBONEMISSIONS,REDUCINGTHENATION’SDEPENDENCEOFOIL,INADDITIONTOSTRENGTHENINGTHELABORMARKETBYPROVIDINGMOREJOBSANDINCREASINGTHEDEMANDFORSPECIALIZEDTALENTSTHECURRENTPOLICIESAREACLEARINDICATIONOFCHINA’SSTRONGCOMMITMENTTOWARDSTHEIRNEVMARKETPOLICIESREGARDINGTHEISSUANCEOFSUBSIDIES,ALLOWSELIGIBLENEVSTOBESOLDATCOMPETITIVEPRICESADDITIONALLY,ITREMOVESSKEPTICISMOVERTHELACKOFFACILITIES,ASSUBSIDIESAREALSOPROVIDEDTOMANUFACTURERSOFCHARGINGFACILITIESTHENEVMARKETHASALSOBENEFITTEDTHROUGHCERTAINRESTRICTIONSPLACEDONTHEIREMISSIONBASEDCOUNTERPARTS,THUSCREATINGAMARKETFRIENDLYENVIRONMENTFORNEVSCURRENTLY,THECHINESENEVMARKETISASUBSIDYDRIVENMARKET,ANDHASSURPASSEDTHEUNITEDSTATESINTERMSOFSALESVOLUME,BYACHIEVINGASALESTOTALOF336,000NEVSIN2016,ACCORDINGTHESTATISTICSPROVIDEDBYTHEINTERNATIONALENERGYAGENCYINTERNATIONALENERGYAGENCY,2017ACCORDINGTOAREPORTPUBLISHEDONSEPTEMBER2017BYBLOOMBERGNEWENERGYFINANCE,DOMESTICNEVMANUFACTURERSSUCHASBYDANDBAICFAREDBETTERTHANTHEIRFOREIGNCOUNTERPARTS,WITHBOTHMANUFACTURERSACCOUNTINGFORROUGHLY40OFTHEMARKET,WHEREASTESLAACCOUNTSFOR9OFTHEMARKETANDISTHEONLYFOREIGNNEVMANUFACTURERHOLDINGARESPECTABLESHAREOFCHINA’SNEVMARKETBLOOMBERG,2017CHINA’SNEVMARKETCANBECATEGORIZEDINTOTHREETYPESOFVEHICLESTHEMBEING,BATTERYELECTRICVEHICLESBEV,PLUGINHYBRIDVEHICLESPHEV,ANDFUELCELLVEHICLESFCEVALTHOUGHTHENEVMARKETISCURRENTLYASUBSIDYDRIVENMARKET,THESTATECOUNCILHASANNOUNCEDTHATALLNEVSUBSIDIESWOULDBESLOWLYPHASEDOUTBYTHEENDOF2020HENCE,MAKINGTHEAMENDMENTANDIMPLEMENTATIONOFCERTAINNEVRELATEDPOLICIESINEVITABLE2HISTORY21EARLYSTAGESDEVELOPINGNEVSTHESOURCEOFCHINA’SEARLIESTNEVRELATEDSTRATEGIESCANBETRACEDBACKTOTHEPERIODOFCHINA’S8TH5YEARPLAN,WHICHPROPOSEDAPLANTODEVELOPELECTRICVEHICLESRESULTINGINTHEINTRODUCTIONOFGOVERNMENTJOURNALOFASIANELECTRICVEHICLES,VOLUME16,NUMBER1,JUNE20181783UPDATEDCATALOGTHE15THVERSIONOFTHECATALOGWASPUBLISHEDON19DECEMBER2017MINISTRYOFINDUSTRYANDINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY,2017THEISSUANCEOFSUBSIDIESHASHELPEDTOWARDSCREATINGAMARKETFRIENDLYENVIRONMENTINOTHERAREASOFTHEMARKET,ASSUBSIDIESAREALSOPROVIDEDTOWARDSTHEMANUFACTURINGOFCHARGINGFACILITIES,ADDITIONALLY,THEDEVELOPMENTSTRATEGYFORCHARGINGFACILITIESAREPROVIDEDINTHE“DEVELOPMENTGUIDELINEONEVCHARGINGINFRASTRUCTURE20152020”THEPLANPROVIDEDNATIONWIDETARGETOF5MILLIONNEWLYCONSTRUCTEDCHARGINGPILESTHROUGHOUT2015TO2020,WHILSTADDRESSINGTHENEEDTOESTABLISHAMOREDEVELOPEDCHARGINGNETWORKTHISRESULTEDINTHESTRATEGICPLACEMENTOFCHARGINGPILESTHROUGHOUTDIFFERENTCITIESANDSAWCHARGINGPILESBEINGERECTEDINGASSTATIONSANDPUBLICPARKINGFACILITIESADDITIONALLY,THEPLANCALLEDFORTHESTRENGTHENINGOFSUPPORTMEASURES,TOGOINACCORDANCEWITHTHE“GUIDINGOPINIONSONACCELERATINGTHEPROMOTIONOFTHEAPPLICATIONOFNEWENERGYVEHICLES”STATINGTHATTHERELEVANTSTATEDEPARTMENTSAREENCOURAGEDTOFORMULATEADDITIONALPOLICIESTOPROVIDEFISCALSUPPORT,WHILSTENCOURAGINGLOCALGOVERNMENTSTOINTRODUCETHEAFOREMENTIONEDPOLICIESANDPROVIDETHEFISCALSUBSIDIESATTHELOCALLEVELALTHOUGHTHEISSUANCEOFSUBSIDIESISTHEPREFERREDMETHODTOWARDSDEVELOPINGTHEMARKET,OTHERINCENTIVESAREPROVIDEDMAINLYTOWARDSTHEBUYERSOFNEVS,WITHTHEINCENTIVESVARYINGBYREGIONNEVOWNERSAREENTITLEDTONEVSPECIFICLICENSEPLATESINVARIOUSCITIES,ALLOWINGTHEMTOOBTAINALICENSEPLATEWITHOUTHAVINGTOPARTICIPATEINALICENSEPLATELOTTERYCE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簡介：9300英文單詞，英文單詞，53萬英文字符，中文萬英文字符，中文16萬字萬字文獻出處文獻出處SMITHITHELAWANDECONOMICSOFMARRIAGECONTRACTSJJOURNALOFECONOMICSURVEYS,2003,172201225THELAWANDECONOMICSOFMARRIAGECONTRACTSIANSMITHABSTRACTGROWTHINPROPERTYOWNERSHIPHASRAISEDTHESTAKESINTHEDISTRIBUTIONOFFINANCIALASSETSONDIVORCEGIVENHIGHRISKSOFMARITALFAILURE,THISHASSTIMULATEDTHEDEMANDFORPRIVATEORDERINGTHROUGHENFORCEABLEMARRIAGECONTRACTSTHISPAPERSURVEYSTHEEXISTINGLAWANDECONOMICSLITERATUREANDLEGALPRACTICETOCONSIDERTHESTATEOFKNOWLEDGEONTHEECONOMICTHEORY,SCOPEANDLIMITSOFWRITTENNUPTIALAGREEMENTSKEYWORDSMARRIAGECONTRACTSPRENUPTIALAGREEMENTSMARITALPROPERTY1INTRODUCTIONWHILETHEREISMUCHSCHOLARLYINVESTIGATIONOFTHEFINANCIALCONSEQUENCESOFMARITALBREAKDOWN,1DISCUSSIONOFTHEPRIVATEREGULATIONOFSUCHOUTCOMESUSINGMARRIAGECONTRACTSISLESSSYSTEMATICTHETOPICOFMARITALCONTRACTINGTOALTERTHEDIVORCEENTITLEMENTSOFTHEPARTIESRECEIVES,FOREXAMPLE,ONLYBRIEFCOMMENTSINTHESTANDARDSURVEYSOFTHEECONOMICSOFTHEFAMILYOFFEREDBYBECKER1991,BERGSTROM19961997,CABRILLO1999,CIGNO1991,ERMISCH1993,GROSSBARDSHECHTMAN1993,POLLAK1985ANDWEISS1997EMPIRICALLY,THEMOSTFREQUENTTYPEOFMARITALCONTRACTINCOMMONLAWJURISDICTIONSISTHEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTDRAFTEDFOLLOWINGMARRIAGEBREAKDOWNSUCHPOSTMARITALSEPARATIONAGREEMENTSARETYPICALLYPREFERREDTOAJUDICIALLYDETERMINEDDIVORCESETTLEMENTBOTHBYDIVORCINGCOUPLESFARMERANDTIEFENTHALER,2001ANDBYCOURTSWHICHRARELYSETASIDEPRIVATELYNEGOTIATEDSOLUTIONSLESSNUMEROUSAREEXANTESEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,COMPRISINGBOTHPRENUPTIALCONTRACTSWRITTENPRIORTOMARRIAGEANDTHOSENEGOTIATEDDURINGACONTINUINGMARRIAGEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,SIGNEDATDIVORCE,ARERELATIVELYUNCONTROVERSIALANDHAVELESSANALYTICALLYINTERESTINGCHARACTERISTICSTHANMARITALCONTRACTSNEGOTIATEDEITHERASACONDITIONOFTHEWEDDINGORDURINGANONGOINGMARRIAGETHEDIFFERENCEINTHEORETICALSIGNIFICANCEARISESBECAUSE,INTHECASEOFEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,EXECUTIONANDENFORCEMENTAREALMOSTCONTEMPORANEOUSWHEREASMARITALCONTRACTSREQUIRECONTINGENTCONTRACTINGOVERAPOSSIBLYDISTANTANDUNCERTAINFUTUREEVENTTHECONSEQUENCEISTHATMARRIAGECONTRACTSINVOLVEISSUESOFRENEGOTIATIONANDSIGNALLING,ASWELLASTHEBARGAININGPROBLEMSTHATALSOARISEWITHPOSTMARITALSEPARATIONAGREEMENTSASCONTRACTINGONSEPARATIONISWELLANALYZEDBYMNOOKINANDKORNHAUSER1979ANDTREBILCOCKANDKEVSHANI1991ITWILLBELARGELYIGNOREDINWHATFOLLOWSCONTRIBUTIONSOUTLININGTHETHEORYANDPRACTICEOFNUPTIALAGREEMENTSDRAWFROMTHELITERATUREONLAWANDECONOMICSANDTHEECONOMICSOFCONTRACTS2MOSTOFTHEDISCUSSIONISRECENT,WITHONLYAFEWPUBLISHEDSTUDIESINENGLISHPRIORTOWEITZMAN1981ASTHEFIELDISRELATIVELYNEW,ANDTHEENFORCEABILITYOFEXANTEMARRIAGECONTRACTSCONTROVERSIALINSOMEJURISDICTIONS,MANYOFTHECONTRIBUTIONSTOTHETOPICHAVEADISTINCTLYNORMATIVEASWELLASANALYTICALFLAVOURWRITERSGENERALLYFAVOURABLETOMARITALCONTRACTSINCLUDEBECKERANDBECKER1997,BIX1998,DNES2000,GROSSBARDSHECHTMANANDLEMENNICIER1999,MARSTON1997,RASMUSENANDSTAKE1998,SCOTTANDSCOTT19981999,TREBILCOCK1999,TREBILCOCKANDKESHVANI1991,WAX1998,WEITZMAN1981ANDYOUNGER19881992SCEPTICSINCLUDEBRINIG2000,BROD1994,COHEN19872002,DIFONZO2000,FRANK1988,MCLELLAN1996,NASHERI1998,NEAVEOWNRELATIONSHIPTERMS,ISTHECOROLLARYOFITSINCREASINGCONCEPTUALIZATIONINTERMSOFRIGHTSTOPROPERTYBELL1997ARGUESFROMANANTHROPOLOGICALPERSPECTIVETHATMARRIAGETRADITIONALLYCONFERREDRIGHTSONAHUSBANDOFSEXUALACCESSTOHISWIFEHOWEVER,INNOVATIONSINFEMALECONTRACEPTIVETECHNOLOGYANDTHELEGALIZATIONOFABORTIONHAVEGIVENGREATERSEXUALANDREPRODUCTIVEAUTONOMYTOWOMENMARRIAGEISNOLONGERDEFINEDSOMUCHINTERMSOFSEXUALRIGHTSBUTRATHERINTERMSOFECONOMICRIGHTSANDCONSEQUENCESITISDISTINGUISHEDFROMNONMARITALCOHABITATIONBYITSIMPLICATIONSFORPROPERTYDIVISION,PENSION,HOUSING,FISCALANDINHERITANCEBENEFITS,ASWELLASBYGREATERENTRYANDEXITCOSTSTHISISTRUEEVENINCOUNTRIESSUCHASSWEDENWHICHSEEKNEUTRALTREATMENTOFDIFFERENTFAMILYFORMSSWEDISHLAWTYPICALLYTREATSNEARLYALLSPOUSALPROPERTYASMARITAL,TOBEPOOLEDANDDIVIDEDEQUALLYONDIVORCE,WHEREASTHATOFCOHABITANTSISTREATEDASSEPARATEPROPERTYBRADLEY,1996INSOFARASTHEINSTITUTIONOFMARRIAGEISCONCEIVEDPRIMARILYINTERMSOFFINANCIALEFFECTS,THISWILLNATURALLYLENDITSELFTOPRIVATECONTRACTINGMOREOVER,MANYLEGALCOMMENTATORSHAVENOTEDARETREATFROMTHEREGULATIONOFMARRIAGEINFAMILYLAW,CREATINGACLIMATEFAVOURABLETOMARITALCONTRACTINGINPARTICULAR,THEFOCUSISSHIFTINGFROMTHELEGALOBLIGATIONSOFPARTNERSTOTHOSEOFPARENTSCARBONE,2000THEMOVEFROMPARTNERSTOPARENTSISEVIDENTINTHEADVENTOFTHECLEANBREAKPHILOSOPHYTHATSEVERSSPOUSALFINANCIALRESPONSIBILITIESINTHEDIVORCESETTLEMENTBUTSTRICTLYENFORCESCONTINUINGCHILDSUPPORTPAYMENTSTHETRENDTOWARDSTHEPRIVATIZATIONOFMARRIAGEISALSOAPPARENTINTHEMODERNEMPHASISONNOFAULTDIVORCE,ANDALTERNATIVENONLITIGIOUSDISPUTERESOLUTIONPROCEDURES,SUCHASMEDIATION,TORESOLVEMARITALCONFLICTSOBSERVINGTHEINCREASINGSELFDETERMINATIONOFOBLIGATIONS,DIFONZO2000POSITSTHATDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESAREEXPERIENCINGATRANSITIONTOVARIABLEORCUSTOMIZEDMARRIAGEHERALDEDBYLEPACSINFRANCEANDREGISTEREDPARTNERSHIPSINTHENETHERLANDS,SCANDINAVIAANDELSEWHEREMOREGENERALLY,MARRIAGECONTRACTSARECONSISTENTWITHCHANGESINPOLITICALCULTURETHATFAVOURINDIVIDUALAUTONOMYOVERSTATEIMPOSEDSOLUTIONSHOWEVER,THEUSEOFMARITALAGREEMENTSISNOTNEWMARRIAGESETTLEMENTSHAVEHISTORICA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簡介：THELAWANDECONOMICSOFMARRIAGECONTRACTSIANSMITHUNIVERSITYOFSTANDREWSABSTRACTGROWTHINPROPERTYOWNERSHIPHASRAISEDTHESTAKESINTHEDISTRIBUTIONOFFINANCIALASSETSONDIVORCEGIVENHIGHRISKSOFMARITALFAILURE,THISHASSTIMULATEDTHEDEMANDFORPRIVATEORDERINGTHROUGHENFORCEABLEMARRIAGECONTRACTSTHISPAPERSURVEYSTHEEXISTINGLAWANDECONOMICSLITERATUREANDLEGALPRACTICETOCONSIDERTHESTATEOFKNOWLEDGEONTHEECONOMICTHEORY,SCOPEANDLIMITSOFWRITTENNUPTIALAGREEMENTSKEYWORDSMARRIAGECONTRACTSPRENUPTIALAGREEMENTSMARITALPROPERTY1INTRODUCTIONWHILETHEREISMUCHSCHOLARLYINVESTIGATIONOFTHEFINANCIALCONSEQUENCESOFMARITALBREAKDOWN,1DISCUSSIONOFTHEPRIVATEREGULATIONOFSUCHOUTCOMESUSINGMARRIAGECONTRACTSISLESSSYSTEMATICTHETOPICOFMARITALCONTRACTINGTOALTERTHEDIVORCEENTITLEMENTSOFTHEPARTIESRECEIVES,FOREXAMPLE,ONLYBRIEFCOMMENTSINTHESTANDARDSURVEYSOFTHEECONOMICSOFTHEFAMILYOFFEREDBYBECKER1991,BERGSTROM19961997,CABRILLO1999,CIGNO1991,ERMISCH1993,GROSSBARDSHECHTMAN1993,POLLAK1985ANDWEISS1997EMPIRICALLY,THEMOSTFREQUENTTYPEOFMARITALCONTRACTINCOMMONLAWJURISDICTIONSISTHEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTDRAFTEDFOLLOWINGMARRIAGEBREAKDOWNSUCHPOSTMARITALSEPARATIONAGREEMENTSARETYPICALLYPREFERREDTOAJUDICIALLYDETERMINEDDIVORCESETTLEMENTBOTHBYDIVORCINGCOUPLESFARMERANDTIEFENTHALER,2001ANDBYCOURTSWHICHRARELYSETASIDEPRIVATELYNEGOTIATEDSOLUTIONSLESSNUMEROUSAREEXANTESEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,COMPRISINGBOTHPRENUPTIALCONTRACTSWRITTENPRIORTOMARRIAGEANDTHOSENEGOTIATEDDURINGACONTINUINGMARRIAGEEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,SIGNEDATDIVORCE,ARERELATIVELYUNCONTROVERSIALANDHAVELESSANALYTICALLYINTERESTINGCHARACTERISTICSTHANMARITALCONTRACTSNEGOTIATEDEITHERASACONDITIONOFTHEWEDDINGORDURINGANONGOINGMARRIAGETHEDIFFERENCEINTHEORETICALSIGNIFICANCEARISESBECAUSE,INTHECASEOFEXPOSTSEPARATIONAGREEMENTS,EXECUTIONANDENFORCEMENTAREALMOSTCONTEMPORANEOUSWHEREASMARITALCONTRACTSREQUIRECONTINGENTCONTRACTINGOVERAPOSSIBLYDISTANTANDUNCERTAINFUTUREEVENTTHECONSEQUENCEISTHATMARRIAGECONTRACTSINVOLVEISSUESOFRENEGOTIATIONANDSIGNALLING,ASWELLASTHEBARGAININGPROBLEMSTHATALSO09500804/03/020201–25JOURNALOFECONOMICSURVEYSVOL17,NO2BLACKWELLPUBLISHINGLTD2003,9600GARSINGTONROAD,OXFORDOX42DQ,UKAND350MAINST,MALDEN,MA02148,USAEQUITABLEFORAHIGHPROPORTIONOFCASESALEGALREGIMECHARACTERIZEDBYJUDICIALDISCRETION,WHILEACCOMMODATINGMARITALHETEROGENEITYTOSOMEEXTENT,INTRODUCESUNCERTAINTYOVERADJUDICATIONANDMAYPROMOTELITIGATIONONERESPONSETOTHEGREATERVARIETYOFMARITALCIRCUMSTANCES,TOMOREWIDESPREADAWARENESSOFTHEBITTERNESSOFADVERSARIALDIVORCECONFLICTS,ANDTOHIGHERFINANCIALSTAKESONDIVORCEISTHEGROWTHINDEMANDFORPRIVATEORDERINGTHROUGHMARITALCONTRACTSSPECIFYINGPOSTDISSOLUTIONENTITLEMENTSFORPROSPECTIVESPOUSES,THEPRIVATENEGOTIATIONANDINDIVIDUALIZEDTAILORINGOFDIVORCECONSEQUENCESACCORDINGTOCIRCUMSTANCESANDPREFERENCESMAYGENERATEEFFICIENCYGAINSFOREXAMPLE,TOTHEEXTENTTHATRELATIVELYEASYACCESSTOCLEANBREAK,NOFAULTDIVORCEHASATTENUATEDINCENTIVESTOINVESTINMARRIAGE,COUPLESCANPROTECTMARRIAGESPECIFICCAPITALBYCUSTOMIZINGSUPPORTOBLIGATIONSDNES,2000INADDITION,COUPLESMAYVALUETHEFREEDOMPRIVATELYTOORDERTHEIRFINANCIALAFFAIRSRATHERTHANHAVINGJUDICIALSOLUTIONSCOERCIVELYIMPOSEDBYTHESTATE,PERMITTINGAMICABLEDETERMINATIONOFPROPERTYRIGHTSPRIORTOORDURINGMARRIAGERATHERTHANLITIGIOUSLYINDIVORCEPROCEEDINGSGROSSBARDSHECHTMANANDLEMENNICIER,1999INDEED,THEREISSOMEEVIDENCETHATNEGOTIATINGADIVORCESETTLEMENTWITHOUTLEGALINTERVENTIONPROMOTESCOMPLIANCEPETERSETAL,1993ONTHESUPPLYSIDE,ALLEN1990HASARGUEDTHATTHESTATEPERMITSPRIVATEMARITALCONTRACTINGINSTEADOFIMPOSINGITSUNIFORMMARRIAGECONTRACTWHENTHEBENEFITSFROMFLEXIBILITYEXCEEDTHEJUDICIALCOSTSOFUSINGTHIRDPARTYSANCTIONSTOENSUREECONOMICJUSTICECONTEMPORARYMOVESTOWARDSTHECONTRACTUALIZATIONOFMARRIAGE,INWHICHPARTIESDEFINETHEIROWNRELATIONSHIPTERMS,ISTHECOROLLARYOFITSINCREASINGCONCEPTUALIZATIONINTERMSOFRIGHTSTOPROPERTYBELL1997ARGUESFROMANANTHROPOLOGICALPERSPECTIVETHATMARRIAGETRADITIONALLYCONFERREDRIGHTSONAHUSBANDOFSEXUALACCESSTOHISWIFEHOWEVER,INNOVATIONSINFEMALECONTRACEPTIVETECHNOLOGYANDTHELEGALIZATIONOFABORTIONHAVEGIVENGREATERSEXUALANDREPRODUCTIVEAUTONOMYTOWOMENMARRIAGEISNOLONGERDEFINEDSOMUCHINTERMSOFSEXUALRIGHTSBUTRATHERINTERMSOFECONOMICRIGHTSANDCONSEQUENCESITISDISTINGUISHEDFROMNONMARITALCOHABITATIONBYITSIMPLICATIONSFORPROPERTYDIVISION,PENSION,HOUSING,FISCALANDINHERITANCEBENEFITS,ASWELLASBYGREATERENTRYANDEXITCOSTSTHISISTRUEEVENINCOUNTRIESSUCHASSWEDENWHICHSEEKNEUTRALTREATMENTOFDIFFERENTFAMILYFORMSSWEDISHLAWTYPICALLYTREATSNEARLYALLSPOUSALPROPERTYASMARITAL,TOBEPOOLEDANDDIVIDEDEQUALLYONDIVORCE,WHEREASTHATOFCOHABITANTSISTREATEDASSEPARATEPROPERTYBRADLEY,1996INSOFARASTHEINSTITUTIONOFMARRIAGEISCONCEIVEDPRIMARILYINTERMSOFFINANCIALEFFECTS,THISWILLNATURALLYLENDITSELFTOPRIVATECONTRACTINGMOREOVER,MANYLEGALCOMMENTATORSHAVENOTEDARETREATFROMTHEREGULATIONOFMARRIAGEINFAMILYLAW,CREATINGACLIMATEFAVOURABLETOMARITALCONTRACTINGINPARTICULAR,THEFOCUSISSHIFTINGFROMTHELEGALOBLIGATIONSOFPARTNERSTOTHOSEOFPARENTSCARBONE,2000THEMOVEFROMPARTNERSTOPARENTSISEVIDENTINTHEADVENTOFTHECLEANBREAKPHILOSOPHYTHATSEVERSSPOUSALFINANCIALRESPONSIBILITIESINTHEDIVORCESETTLEMENTBUTSTRICTLYENFORCESCONTINUINGCHILDSUPPORTPAYMENTSTHETRENDTOWARDSTHEPRIVATIZATIONOFMARRIAGEISALSOAPPARENTINTHEMODERNMARRIAGECONTRACTS203BLACKWELLPUBLISHINGLTD2003

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簡介：1錯誤錯誤未找到目未找到目錄項錄項。淺析非婚同居的法律問題賈磊摘要摘要近年來，隨著商品經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展，社會環(huán)境日益寬容，現(xiàn)代人對婚姻家庭的傳統(tǒng)思想觀念正在經(jīng)歷著前所未有的改變，非婚同居現(xiàn)象的增多是主要表現(xiàn)之一。現(xiàn)階段，非婚同居在我國尚未有體系化的法律法規(guī)予以規(guī)制，以致產(chǎn)生一系列的社會問題。對此，應(yīng)當(dāng)從維護合法婚姻的權(quán)威和保護相關(guān)當(dāng)事人正當(dāng)權(quán)益出發(fā)，理性分析非婚同居的實質(zhì)，明確界定非婚同居的法律地位，參照和借鑒國外有關(guān)立法，構(gòu)建符合中國國情的非婚同居法律制度。關(guān)鍵詞關(guān)鍵詞非婚同居非法同居事實婚姻法律規(guī)制隨著商品經(jīng)濟的日益繁榮，人們的生活多元化發(fā)展，當(dāng)今社會不斷擴大對個人自由的尊重與寬容，現(xiàn)代人對婚姻家庭這一傳統(tǒng)概念的認識正經(jīng)歷著諸如“新同居時代”1等新名詞的強烈沖擊，許多人選擇了非婚同居這一游走于法律門外的“新婚姻”方式。然而，由于傳統(tǒng)道德與新觀念的較量難分高下，法學(xué)理論與司法實踐的矛盾長期存在，導(dǎo)致法律對非婚同居這種普遍社會現(xiàn)象的規(guī)制仍有待完善。由非婚同居引發(fā)的各種糾紛時有發(fā)生，中華人民共和國婚姻法（以下簡稱新婚姻法）及其司法解釋中僅有的幾個零散的規(guī)定遠遠不能滿足司法實踐的需要。我國婚姻法應(yīng)立足于社會現(xiàn)實，正視非婚同居現(xiàn)象，從保護有關(guān)利害關(guān)系人的合法權(quán)益出發(fā)，制定規(guī)范非婚同居行為的法律法規(guī)。一、非婚同居含義分析1、非婚同居的概念和構(gòu)成要件3間，是因為這種結(jié)合只有持續(xù)存在，才能證明其具有一定的穩(wěn)定性，而和“一夜情”等行為區(qū)別開來。在法律規(guī)制非婚同居行為的國家，都要求當(dāng)事人的行為持續(xù)一定的期間才能獲得非婚同居規(guī)則的使用，而且這一期間不能有明顯的間斷。如美國的某些州規(guī)定的是三個月以上，丹麥等規(guī)定須三年以上。結(jié)合我國國情，筆者認為，非婚同居的持續(xù)期間應(yīng)以兩年為宜。二、非婚同居法律地位的界定只有對某個概念作出明確的界定，才能正確區(qū)分其與相似概念的異同，進而確立適合的法律規(guī)范加以規(guī)制。在我國，由于婚姻法和相關(guān)司法解釋對現(xiàn)實中普遍存在的各種同居現(xiàn)象缺乏一個統(tǒng)一的分類，加之歷史上法律對“事實婚姻”和“非法同居”的態(tài)度曾經(jīng)經(jīng)歷過幾次重大的轉(zhuǎn)變，理論界對非婚同居法律地位的界定一直未能達成一致。長期以來，有兩種主流觀點１、認為非婚同居等同于非法同居。受中國傳統(tǒng)道德觀念的影響，老百姓長期認為，如果男女雙方未經(jīng)“明媒正娶”就公開居住在一起，長期被看作是不道德甚至是傷風(fēng)敗俗的行為。而在2001年新婚姻法頒布之前，我國司法領(lǐng)域也長期堅持這種觀點。其代表有1989年11月21日最高人民法院關(guān)于人民法院審理未辦理結(jié)婚登記而以夫妻名義同居生活的若干意見（以下簡稱意見）第三條明確規(guī)定“自民政部新的婚姻登記管理條例實施之日起即1994年2月1日，未辦理結(jié)婚登記即以夫妻名義共同生活的按非法同居關(guān)系對待?！弊罡呷嗣穹ㄔ涸陉P(guān)于適用新的〈婚姻登記管理條例〉的通知中明確指出“自1994年2月1日起，沒有配偶的男女，未經(jīng)結(jié)婚登記即以夫妻名義同居生活的，其婚姻關(guān)系無效，不受法律保護，對于起訴到人民法院的，應(yīng)按非法同居關(guān)系處理?！彪S著時代的發(fā)展，這種觀點越來越遭到各方的質(zhì)疑。首先，非法同居，是指不合法的男女同居行為?；橐龇ú⑽疵魑囊?guī)定禁止婚前同居行為，僅憑司法解釋認定非婚同居都為非法同居是不符合法理的。其次，新婚姻法頒布以前，司法解釋以是否以夫妻名義同居作為判斷非婚同居行為法律性質(zhì)的依據(jù)，僅對以夫妻名義同居生活的行為做出規(guī)定，卻不規(guī)定有配偶且與他人不以夫妻名義的同居行為，這樣只會為姘居、“包二奶”等真正的“非法”同居行為放行。

簡介：防范不良信貸資產(chǎn)的法律機制研究防范不良信貸資產(chǎn)的法律機制研究防范不良信貸資產(chǎn)的法律機制研究作者黃學(xué)海/馬樺/舒達坤頻頻發(fā)生的金融危機的原因是多方面的，但各國商業(yè)銀行不良信貸資產(chǎn)的累積，加劇了整個金融體系風(fēng)險，動搖了國民和外國投資者對金融機構(gòu)的信心，以致于引發(fā)金融危機，應(yīng)是主要原因之一。一、我國商業(yè)銀行不良信貸資產(chǎn)現(xiàn)狀及其成因分析（一）商業(yè)銀行不良信貸資產(chǎn)現(xiàn)狀眾所周知，我國四大國有商業(yè)銀行不良信貸資產(chǎn)數(shù)額巨大。按有關(guān)資料統(tǒng)計，全國國有商業(yè)銀行不良信貸資產(chǎn)比例約為2025％左右，按20％計算，19901996年不良信貸資產(chǎn)數(shù)額如下表年份1990年1991年1992年1993年不良貸款金額億元295196351896421634517394年份1994年1995年1996年不良貸款金額億元648824784992948690由此可見，一方面，不良信貸資產(chǎn)存量數(shù)額巨大，到1996年達9500億元，而同年全國四大國有商業(yè)銀行的所有者權(quán)益與呆賬準備金合計約為3200億元，因此，只要不良貸款回收比例低于40％，國有商業(yè)銀行實際上處于資不抵債狀態(tài)；另一方面，不良信貸資產(chǎn)增量不斷累加。由于社會保障機制的不健全及政府的干預(yù)，銀行對陷入困難的企業(yè)不能見死不救，“安定團結(jié)”之類貸款的發(fā)放，導(dǎo)致了國有商業(yè)銀行不良信貸資產(chǎn)的迅速累積。所以說，化解我國國有商業(yè)銀行的存量不良信貸資產(chǎn)，特別是進一步預(yù)防增量不良信貸資產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)生，已成為減少和降低金融風(fēng)險，形成良好金融秩序，確保國家經(jīng)濟安全，建立社會主義市場經(jīng)濟體制的一個重大問題。（二）不良信貸資產(chǎn)成因的一般分析不良信貸資產(chǎn)的形成原因是復(fù)雜的，既有體制政策上的，也有經(jīng)營管理方面的；既有外部的，也有內(nèi)部的；既有歷史的，也有現(xiàn)實的。從體制方面看，傳統(tǒng)計劃經(jīng)濟體制下的資金供給制和財稅改革后的“撥改貸”所形成的銀企依賴機制，使國有銀行的大量貸款在之門。從上述分析看，不良信貸資產(chǎn)的成因是復(fù)雜的、多變的，我們可以采取經(jīng)濟、行政的手段進行短期的化解和防范，但從法律角度建立一套內(nèi)外結(jié)合、縱橫統(tǒng)一的防范機制，才能從根本上消除誘發(fā)不良信貸資產(chǎn)產(chǎn)生的各種因素，為依法治理金融，確保金融業(yè)的良性循環(huán)創(chuàng)造良好的法治環(huán)境，最終達到保障金融業(yè)長治久安的目的。二、商業(yè)銀行信貸制度的完善完善商業(yè)銀行信貸制度需從商業(yè)銀行外部、內(nèi)部兩個方面考慮。（一）商業(yè)銀行信貸經(jīng)營的外部保證機制1市場化的銀企機制。根據(jù)我國法律法規(guī)的規(guī)定和市場經(jīng)濟的客觀要求，市場經(jīng)濟中的商業(yè)銀行和工商企業(yè)都應(yīng)為完全獨立的經(jīng)濟人和法人，都是為追求自身利益最大化的平等的經(jīng)濟主體，二者之間的交易行為須以互惠互利為前提，按照平等、自愿、公平和誠實信用原則進行資金、信息等往來，以求共同發(fā)展。這種市場化的銀企機制就是指銀企之間信貸契約市場化和信用關(guān)系正常化，其實質(zhì)是指通過資金連接，產(chǎn)生宏微觀經(jīng)濟效益，以實現(xiàn)銀企雙方各自效益的最大化。這種利益均享、風(fēng)險共擔(dān)的銀企機制一方面要求銀行在信貸經(jīng)營中，必須考察貸款企業(yè)的資信能力和信用狀況，以求減少信貸風(fēng)險，確保信貸資產(chǎn)的保值增值；另一方面也客觀上要求和促進企業(yè)提高經(jīng)濟效益，增強經(jīng)營活力，加快建立現(xiàn)代企業(yè)制度的步伐，從而從根本上控制和減少不良信貸資產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)生。2規(guī)范的多元化融資機制。發(fā)展金融市場，完善金融市場法律體系，形成規(guī)范的多元化融資機制，一方面使政策性貸款從商業(yè)銀行的業(yè)務(wù)中徹底分離出去，確保商業(yè)銀行信貸資產(chǎn)的安全性、流動性、盈利性，降低信貸風(fēng)險；另一方面，可加大直接融資比例，給企業(yè)提供獲取資金的另一條途徑，緩解企業(yè)對銀行資金的高度依賴性，為銀行轉(zhuǎn)移，分散風(fēng)險提供廣闊的空間，同時，通過直接融資充實企業(yè)的資本金，也可減輕企業(yè)負擔(dān)，增強企業(yè)盈利能力和抗風(fēng)險能力，為最終解決因企業(yè)虧損而導(dǎo)致大量不良信貸資產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)生創(chuàng)造條件。3健全的社會保障機制。深化社會保障體制改革，加快和完善社會